Knowledge base · Part XIX — Discourse and the Grammar of Oral Literature · this topic as a network
153. The Elevated/Poetic Register: Archaic Morphology and Formulaic Diction
What are the grammatical and lexical features of the elevated register in Hokkaido Ainu?
Overview: atomte-itak and yayan-itak
What are the names and definitions of the two registers in Hokkaido Ainu?
Ainu makes a traditional distinction between ornate language (a=tomte itak, or elegant/poetic speech) and ordinary language (yayan itak, or colloquial/everyday speech). (Nakagawa 2024: 586) Poetic expressions are largely expressions refined over time to satisfy the principles of poetic meter, rather than reflecting how Ainu was once spoken in everyday life. (Nakagawa 2024: 601) In Ainu verse, multi-line expressions consisting of several lines function as formulas (or formula groups), because single lines of four or five syllables do not form complete meaningful units on their own. (Nakagawa 2024: 614) The theme of brewing sake (酒を醸す) is expressed across various dialects through combinations of similar formulas mentioning six store barrels (sintoko) placed at the hearth's upper and lower seats and the fragrance filling the house. (Nakagawa 2024: 617) Formulas describing a woman's farming as requiring the construction of two or three storehouses reflect the traditional cultural conception that cultivation was women's work. (Nakagawa 2024: 619) Classical Ainu (the language of yukar) is more conservative and exhibits less dialectal variation than the colloquial spoken language. (Shibatani 1990: 4)
Genre density and the elegant-language gradient
How does the density of elegant language vary across different genres?
In Chitose prose tales, formulaic passages describing a mother teaching women's work to daughters and a father teaching men's work to sons (as well as hunting prowess) are frequently added. (Nakagawa 2024: 620) In heroic epics, specific formulaic lines are used to depict fighting one-on-one with swords. (Nakagawa 2024: 620) Ending a story with the expression '...saying so, [the narrator] died' is a common pattern in Ainu oral literature. (Satō 2008: 365)
Grammatical features of atomte-itak
What are the grammatical hallmarks of the poetic register?
In verse, expressions like 'modifier + common noun + spatial noun' often avoid being compressed into a single line, and are expanded into two lines by repeating the common noun. (Nakagawa 2024: 599) In the elevated/poetic register, semantically empty ki is often added even when seemingly unnecessary, and in kamuy yukar it is sometimes repeated to regulate the narrative rhythm. (Satō 2008: 83) In elevated poetic expressions, the head noun is often repeated after a noun accompanied by modifiers. (Satō 2008: 303) In Ainu (especially oral literature), it is commonly observed that a periphrastic noun phrase is used instead of a verbal expression, saying for instance 'I was a lady who died while teaching' rather than 'I died while teaching'. (Satō 2008: 364)
Applicative case-marking
How are oblique relations expressed in the elevated register compared to everyday speech?
Oblique cases can be expressed analytically by case particles, which is typical of spoken Ainu, or synthetically by verbal prefixes, which is typical of archaic and poetic register. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) In the verse i-kamiashi ka i-ronronke, what should originally have been a-kamiashi and a-sampehe became i-kamiashi and i-sampehe by rhyming with the following verbs i-ronronke and i-hochirkar. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936)
Number-agreement override
How does number agreement differ between the poetic and everyday registers?
Using a plural verb form for a singular referent provides a roundabout expression that may represent an honorific or elevated/poetic register usage. (proposed in Satō 2008: 295)
Polysynthetic expansion and periphrasis
What polysynthetic expansions and periphrases occur in the elevated register?
Polysynthetic and noun-incorporating verb constructions are more prominently found in Classical and elevated poetic Ainu than in everyday colloquial speech. (Nakagawa 2024: 588, Shibatani 1990: 4) In poetic language, incorporating and polysynthetic expressions are frequently formed as fixed formulas incorporating pleonastic morphemes (such as 'kur' or 'or') to conform to metric constraints. (Nakagawa 2024: 589) In the elevated/poetic register, everyday expressions are often replaced with longer periphrastic expressions to conform to metrical principles. (Nakagawa 2024: 590) A periphrastic 5-syllable expression retaining the meaning of an original 3-syllable intransitive verb can be formed by deriving the verb with a causative suffix like -re (-te, -e) or -ka and prefixing the middle-voice marker ci- ('cause oneself to V'). (Nakagawa 2024: 590) A 2-syllable intransitive verb can also form a 5-syllable periphrastic expression by adding an applicative prefix to become 3 syllables and then taking middle-voice ci- and a causative suffix. (Nakagawa 2024: 590) A 1-syllable motion verb can form a 5-syllable periphrastic expression by prefixing ci-, incorporating the corresponding locational noun with directional -na, and suffixing a causative suffix. (Nakagawa 2024: 590) For 2-syllable motion verbs such as rikin, the ci- + locational noun-na + verb + causative periphrastic pattern is not formed because it would yield 6 syllables, violating metrical constraints. (Nakagawa 2024: 591) Intransitive verbs cikannare 'go upward' and cipoknare 'go downward' can be formed with the structure ci-kanna-re and ci-pokna-re. (Nakagawa 2024: 591) A transitive verb with a personal affix is often periphrastically expanded across two lines using the template 'ci- + transitive verb / personal affix + ekarkar'. (Nakagawa 2024: 591) Expletives (虚辞) in Ainu are words or affixes that serve exclusively to adjust the poetic meter without adding any semantic content. (Nakagawa 2024: 592) The expletives ko and konna do not necessarily occur as a pair, but can also be used independently. (Nakagawa 2024: 593) The expletive kur is inserted within a single compound verb when the preceding word adverbially modifies the following verb. (Nakagawa 2024: 594) The expletive or (homophonous with the locational noun or) can be inserted after a noun to make a line 5 syllables long in contexts where no locational noun is grammatically required. (Nakagawa 2024: 594) When the preceding element has 2 syllables, the expletive orkehe (3 syllables) is sometimes used to bring the line to 5 syllables. (Nakagawa 2024: 595) The filler element anakki is analyzed as the adverbial particle anak 'topic' plus the verb ki 'to do', having the grammatical function of expanding a verb phrase. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 609) Other verse filler phrases include iki korkayki 'although so', orowa kayki 'and then', and phrases built with enune or penune such as enune ayne, enune awa, penune kusu, and penune ki kor. (Nakagawa 2024: 610) Many of the word-formation processes characterizing Ainu as a polysynthetic language occur in Classical Ainu, the language of yukar. (Shibatani 1990)
The hero-narrator person system
What person affix set is used for the narrative hero in verse?
The use of first-person plural forms (the a-(an-) series and ci- series) in poetic/elevated language can be regarded as a kind of periphrasis that obscures the referent through plural marking. (proposed in Satō 2004) In the classical/poetic register, the first-person singular intransitive subject affix -an attaches after the singular stem an 'to exist'. (Satō 2008: 287) The suffix -an marks the first-person singular (or plural) nominative on intransitive verbs in the elevated/poetic register. (Satō 2008: 366) In Classical Ainu, the first-person object prefix is i- for both singular and plural. (Shibatani 1990: 26)
The register lexicon
What are the word pairs between everyday and elegant vocabulary?
The complex word si-kopa-yar means 'like' and is not used in everyday language. (Endō 2022: 10.4) In divine and heroic epics, the expression 'tu ~ / re ~' ('two ~ / three ~') is commonly used to mean 'many' rather than specifying a literal number. (Endō 2022: 10.4) The suffix -hitara is frequently used in verse, particularly in conventional set phrases within heroic epics. (Nakagawa 2024: 206) The suffix -kar attached to transitive verbs is used especially in verse and is considered an expletive (dummy morpheme) used for syllable count adjustment. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 209) In Saru and Chitose epic poetry, an adnominal ta appears in the expression cise ta turesi 'sister of the house' to distinguish an actual sister from a wife or lover. (Nakagawa 2024: 302) As an expression characteristic of verse, forms with ki preceding a small set of intransitive verbs (such as ki-hopuni, kicis, kihoyupu, kiparaparak, kisoyosma, kitontaro) are used, taking transitive personal affixes. (Nakagawa 2024: 376) In verse and prayers, special poetic vocabulary is used instead of everyday words, such as 'iresukamuy' or 'mosirkorkamuy' instead of 'apehuci'/'huciape' for the fire god, and 'reyep' or 'mimakitar utar' instead of 'seta' for dog. (Nakagawa 2024: 586) Everyday vocabulary corresponds systematically to poetic vocabulary in elevated registers, such as 'cise' vs. 'kenru' (house), 'emus' vs. 'tam' / 'ramkopastep' (sword), 'cip' vs. 'nimam' (boat), 'ru' vs. 'kiroru' (road), 'hos' vs. 'kinatuyehos' (leggings), 'numat' vs. 'sinotnumatpo' (mour breast-strap), 'tanto' vs. 'tananto' (today), 'kor'/'enuwap' vs. 'yaykosanke' (give birth to), 'ese' vs. 'ioeseciwre' (answer affirmatively), and 'iteki' vs. 'ikineypeka' (do not). (Nakagawa 2024: 587) In Saru tradition, kamuy deities have ordinary names alongside formal 'true names' (often paired as male and female couples), such as 'apemerukoyanmat unamerukoyanmat' for the fire goddess 'kamuyhuci'. (Nakagawa 2024: 587) The term sara turenpe denotes a visible guardian spirit. (Nakagawa 2024: 622) The term mukke turenpe denotes an invisible guardian spirit. (Nakagawa 2024: 622) Formulas that are used across multiple themes frequently take the form of couplets or of a nominal couplet followed by a verb. (Nakagawa 2024: 622) The formula 'nep a=e rusuy ka, nep a=kor rusuy ka somo ki' almost invariably appears at least once in Saru and Chitose prose tales to describe a prosperous, contented life. (Nakagawa 2024: 623) The formula ramma kane katkor kane expresses an untroubled daily life, frequently occurring in the frame ramma kane katkor kane oka(y)=an (=as). (Nakagawa 2024: 623) The formula repunkur atuy, yaunkur atuy, atuy utur expresses rowing far out to sea away from one's homeland, and can be followed by verbs such as epaye. (Nakagawa 2024: 623) In the formula combining repunkur atuy and yaunkur atuy, either order of the two conjuncts is acceptable. (Nakagawa 2024: 623) The formula itak=an ciki e=inu katu ene an hi serves as an opening expression when revealing the truth of a matter or instructing an interlocutor on what they must do. (Nakagawa 2024: 623) The formula pirkaresu tomteresu expresses raising someone with great care, and can also appear as cipirkaresu citomteresu ekarkar. (Nakagawa 2024: 623) While pirkaonnere ('let someone live out their natural life') exists alongside pirkaresu, the parallel form tomteonnere is not used. (Nakagawa 2024: 623) The formula depicting reverent onkami bowing/praying can be used in its full form (otu sanaske ore sanaske uenoye, tu pase onkami re pase onkami ukakuspare) or with either the first half or second half alone. (Nakagawa 2024: 623) The formula otu henkuror ore henkuror koanu is often used when an adult admonishes a child or warmly looks after what a child does. (Nakagawa 2024: 624) The expression anramasu uesuye ('felt very pleased with') is rarely used in the third person, but is normally framed with first-person affixes as anramasu a=uesuye or anramasu c(i)=uesuye. (Nakagawa 2024: 624) The element anramasu is analyzed morphologically as ar- ('completely') plus ramasu ('agreeable, pleasant'). (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 624) In the hyperbolic formula pak isonkur isam isonkur, pakno ('so, to that extent') is shortened to pak to form a four-syllable foot because isonkur has three syllables. (Nakagawa 2024: 624) When the head noun in the hyperbolic formula pakno nispa isam nispa is replaced by the three-syllable noun katkemat, the form is likewise pak katkemat isam katkemat rather than with pakno. (Nakagawa 2024: 624) The formulaic expression sinna(y) kane, while used to describe herds of deer separating by category, is also used across other themes such as armed groups dividing by weaponry. (Nakagawa 2024: 624) The oral-literature formulaic expression sinna(y) kane, while often translated literally as 'separately', actually conveys that something exists in very large numbers. (Nakagawa 2024: 625) Verbs suffixed with -natara, -atki, or -rototke following konna appear to be frequently used when the state or action in question represents a typical or prototypical manifestation. (Satō 2008: 65) The form rok'oka expresses a meaning similar to anan, but since it is only attested in oral literature, it may be an elevated/poetic expression. (proposed in Satō 2008: 79) The morpheme tap is a form that appears mainly in the elevated/poetic register and is considered a kind of emphatic secondary particle, usually taking a nominalizer such as hi or ruwe before it. (Satō 2008: 305) The construction '~ ru konna + ideophonic verb' is a formulaic pattern in oral literature expressing the state of affairs where an event or entity is in its prototypical condition. (Satō 2008: 330) The expression sonno póka has only been attested in oral literature. (Satō 2008: 343) The expression pan supuyapo at 'a thin wisp of smoke rises' is a formulaic expression in oral literature used to depict people living on the verge of starvation. (Satō 2008: 344) In oral literature, the expression i-ka ta cispa (literally 'weep on me') is used idiomatically to mean 'to weep for joy over someone's safety'. (Satō 2008: 346) sirpo uwosmare is a formulaic expression used in set phrases such as okkayo sirpo uwosmare ('become an adult man') and menoko sirpo uwosmare ('become an adult woman'). (Satō 2008: 352) Classical Ainu exhibits more instances of honorifics than the colloquial language. (Shibatani 1990: 54)
Debates
Is the register distinction a dichotomy or a continuum?
Verse formulas in Ainu oral literature are not completely fixed lines; they can be altered on the spot and their ordering can be swapped across different performances of the same tale by the same narrator. (Nakagawa 2024: 615) Even when sake-brewing formulas occur in prose tales, they follow metrical rhythmic principles (such as 4- and 5-syllable units), suggesting they originate as verse formulas. (Nakagawa 2024: 618)