Knowledge base · Part XXI — Language Contact and the Lexicon · this topic as a network
165. Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
What lexical and structural influences did Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu have on Ainu in the Sakhalin/Amur contact zone?
In Sakhalin Ainu, wheat flour was called moka, borrowed from Russian muka. (Ōno 2022: 12.8)
The northern contact zone
Which genealogically unrelated languages occupied Sakhalin and how did they interact?
On the island of Sakhalin, three genealogically distinct languages—Ainu, Nivkh, and Uilta—came into contact through social and economic activities. (Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.1) Among the dialects of Ainu, it is the Sakhalin dialect that exhibits the most characteristics in common with Nivkh and Uilta. (reported in Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.2) The central region of Sakhalin, where the Ainu contacted the Nivkh and Uilta, may have developed a unique language use situation distinct from other regions of the island. (proposed in Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.4)
Ainu–Nivkh contact: the lexical layer
How can the direction of lexical borrowing between Ainu and Nivkh be determined?
The form Sumer-en-kur is an exonym used by the Ainu for the Amur Ghilyak. (Janhunen 2022: 2.2) Ainu tunakay 'reindeer' reflects early lexical interaction with Nivkh, having been borrowed from Pre-Proto-Ghilyak *tola-ŋa.y 'pulling animal'. (Janhunen 2022: 2.3) Some settlements on Sakhalin had names in both Ainu and Nivkh, such as Ainu Poro kotan and Nivkh Pile vo, both meaning 'big settlement'. (Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.2) Sakhalin Ainu nuso or nuhsu 'dog sled' is a borrowing from Nivkh nuci. (reported in Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.3) Nivkh [t] corresponds to Sakhalin Ainu [r] in loanwords between the two languages, as in Nivkh maxt to Sakhalin Ainu mahru 'towline spreader' and Nivkh mut to Sakhalin Ainu muhru 'pillow'. (Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.3) Ainu san 'shelf for offerings' is hypothesized to share an origin with Nivkh cʰaŋ and Uilta saan 'shelf, stand'. (reported in Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.3) Sakhalin Ainu juuru 'bow used in trap' is shared with Nivkh jur and is absent from Hokkaido Ainu. (Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.3) Sakhalin Ainu tuna(-san-nis) 'harpoon (entire)' is considered a loan from Nivkh tʰla or kʰla, exhibiting the sound correspondence [tʰl] > [tu]. (proposed in Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.3) Sakhalin Ainu hankata 'birch bark plate' was borrowed from Nivkh haŋr̥. (proposed in Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.3) Nivkh ɲŋar̥ 'ladder' was possibly borrowed from Sakhalin Ainu nikar, where the loss of the unaccented first syllable reflects the second-syllable accent of nikar. (proposed in Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.3) In Nivkh, lexical borrowings in common with Ainu are comparatively few, suggesting that language contact along the north-south axis of Sakhalin was local and limited. (Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.4) The Poronaisk dialect of Nivkh exceptionally has a large number of loanwords in common with Ainu compared to other Nivkh dialects, supporting the localized nature of contact between the two languages. (Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.4) Thirty-one loanwords are identified as common across Ainu, Nivkh, and Uilta on Sakhalin. (Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.4)
Tungusic, Manchu, and the Santan trade
What role did the Santan trade play in transmitting Manchu and Tungusic vocabulary to Ainu?
Sakhalin Ainu numeral tanku '100' is a borrowing from Tungusic. (Tangiku 2022: 9.3; proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 468) The form Orakata is an exonym used by the Ainu for the Amur Tungus. (Janhunen 2022: 2.2) The Ainu noun 'ináw 'ritual shavings' is shared with neighbouring languages of Sakhalin and the Amur basin and is of Tungusic origin. (Janhunen 2022: 2.3) Sakhalin Ainu tonkori 'stringed musical instrument' is thought to be a loan from Manchu. (reported in Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.3) On the west coast of Sakhalin, Ainu uses the Uilta loanword wampakka for 'mittens', whereas on the east coast the word matumere is used. (Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.3)
What reached Hokkaido
Which northern loanwords with clear reflexes in Hokkaido Ainu have been identified?
Ainu kaya refers to both fish-skin clothing and sails in Sakhalin and Hokkaido, though in Hokkaido dialects the 'fish-skin' sense has bleached and it refers simply to sails. (Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.3)
Structural contact and the Sprachbund question
Did Sakhalin Ainu, Nivkh, and Tungusic languages form a Sprachbund?
The innovative V-poss form in Sakhalin Ainu may have developed under the influence of Tungusic languages spoken in Sakhalin (especially Uilta). (proposed in Bugaeva 2016)
Evidence base and its limits
What are the main limitations of the evidence for northern contact influences on Ainu?
Ainu loanwords borrowed into other languages of Sakhalin were very rarely transmitted to the Asian continent. (reported in Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022: 7.2)