Knowledge base · Part XVIII — Information Structure, Sentence-Final Particles, and Minor Classes · this topic as a network
147. Conjunctions and Discourse Connectives
How does the language coordinate noun phrases and connect clauses in discourse, and how do these forms differ from other clause-linking devices?
Word-class status and the connective–clause-linker boundary
Do conjunctions form a distinct word class, or are they subsumed under another class such as adverbs?
Conjunctions are not established as an independent word class in Ainu grammar, being subsumed under adverbs or conjunctive particles. (Nakagawa 2024: 118, Satō 2008: 3) There are no genuine conjunctions in Ainu in the sense of morphemes whose exclusive function is to serve as conjunctions. (Refsing 1986) Composite expressions consisting of a positional noun and a case postposition can function as sentence connectors or conjunctions. (Refsing 1986) In the Shizunai dialect, conjunctions often occur after a major juncture marked by a conjunctionalizer, so that clauses are connected by both. (Refsing 1986: 131) awa functions as a conjunctive particle. (Kirikae 1997: 11) Certain postpositions function as conjunctions either by standing clause-initially on their own or by combining with verbs such as nee 'be' or 'an 'exist'. (Murasaki 2025: 109) In the Shizunai dialect, occurrences of conjunctionalizers functioning as conjunctions are few and far between. (Refsing 1986: 45) Conjunctions in Ainu are free forms and are much less commonly used than conjunctionalizers. (Refsing 1986: 81) When a conjunction follows a major juncture marked by a conjunctionalizer, it resembles an adverb modifying the predicate of the sentence or may be viewed as an emphatic extension of the conjunctionalizer. (proposed in Refsing 1986: 131) In Ainu, conjunctions are free forms that begin a sentence or clause by semantically connecting it to a preceding spoken or implied sentence. (Refsing 1986: 238)
orano and orowano — the sequential connective
What form or forms express sequential 'and then, after that', and what is their origin?
The sequence oro wa literally means 'from there/that place' but functions as a connective meaning 'and then, therefore'. (Satō 2008: 60, 123) In the Shizunai dialect, orwa, orowa, and orowano (derived from or) function as temporal or sequential conjunctions meaning 'and then, afterwards'. (Refsing 1986) Adverbs derived from the locational noun or and the case particle wa (such as orowa, orowano, orowaun, ora, oraun) differ from conjunctional particles in that they are not restricted to post-verbal position and can follow conjunctional particles. (Nakagawa 2024: 517) Orwa(no) is frequently used as a temporal conjunction or conjunctionalizer. (Refsing 1986)
rapokke and rapoketa — simultaneous temporal
How does the language mark temporal overlap or simultaneity between narrative events?
In the Shizunai dialect, rapoketa (derived from rapok) functions as a contemporal conjunction meaning 'during that time, while'. (Refsing 1986: 131)
tane — temporal adverb and scene-shift marker
How is the temporal adverb 'now' used to shift scene or time reference at a clause boundary?
newaanpe — the resumptive anaphoric connective
What connective form refers back to a prior fact or situation, and how is it structurally composed?
NP coordinators — newa and usa
What forms coordinate noun phrases, and where does each appear within the coordinated phrase?
When listing nouns in the sense of 'and', newa is used. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The particle newa originates from the verb ne ('to become') and the connective particle wa, originally meaning 'having become', and functions to express 'both' and the conjunction 'and'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) When two or more successive nominal adjuncts are marked with ka, ka functions as a coordinative postposition. (Refsing 1986: 172)
Connective inventory
What connective forms are attested, and how do corpus frequency counts reflect their multiple functions?
In the Shizunai dialect, etokta (derived from the positional noun etok) functions as a temporal or sequential conjunction meaning 'before then'. (Refsing 1986) In the Shizunai dialect, orpakno (derived from or) functions as a temporal or sequential conjunction meaning 'until then'. (Refsing 1986) In the Shizunai dialect, ekari (derived from the positional kari) functions as a contemporal conjunction meaning 'around that time'. (Refsing 1986) In the Shizunai dialect, yak functions as a conditional conjunction meaning 'then (a condition being fulfilled)'. (Refsing 1986: 131) Orpakno may function as a conjunction or conjunctionalizer meaning 'until'. (Refsing 1986) ayne functions as a connective meaning 'in the end, after doing..., finally'. (Satō 2008: 366)