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A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

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Contents

Part I — The Language and Its Setting

1 Aims, Scope, and Design Philosophy of This Grammar
2 A Typological Profile of Hokkaido Ainu
3 The Ainu People, Their Homeland, and History
4 The Sociolinguistic Situation: Endangerment and Revitalization
5 The Genetic Position of Ainu: Isolate Status and Macro-Comparison Controversies
6 The History of Ainu Language Description and Previous Research

Part II — Sources, Conventions, Glossing, and Orthography

7 Written Sources: Grammars, Dictionaries, and the Philological Record
8 The Oral-Literature Corpus and Spoken-Language Data
9 The Dialect Sample and the Corpus-Quantification Method
10 Interlinear Glossing, Abbreviations, and Citation Conventions
11 The Latin Phonemic Transcription
12 Katakana Orthography and the Extended Small-Kana Codas
13 Cyrillic and Multi-Script Rendering
14 Orthographic Standardization and the Word-Division Problem

Part III — Segmental Phonetics, Phonology, and Phonotactics

15 The Consonant Inventory and Its Phonetic Realization
16 The Vowel Inventory and Vowel Realization
17 /s/ and the s ~ š Palatalization Alternation
18 The Rhotic /r/ and Coda-r
19 The Laryngeals: Glottal Stop, /h/, and the Final-h Question
20 Syllable Structure, Phonotactics, and Word-Edge Constraints
21 Glides, Vowel Hiatus, and the Diphthong Question

Part IV — Prosody and the Pitch-Accent System

22 The Pitch-Accent Placement Rule and the Accented/Accentless Dialect Split
23 The Prosodic Unit and the Accent-versus-Tone Analysis
24 Lexical/Contrastive Accent and Minimal Pairs
25 Accent in Compounds and under Affixation and Cliticization
26 Phrasal and Utterance Intonation

Part V — Morphophonology and Sandhi

27 Assimilation and Cluster Simplification: Coda /r/, Nasals, and Clusters
28 Glide Epenthesis and Vowel-Hiatus Resolution
29 Citation vs Combining Stem Shapes and Support Vowels
30 Personal-Affix Junctural Sandhi, =an/a= Allomorphy, and Connected-Speech Reduction
31 Reduplication Phonology and Rule Interaction

Part VI — Word Classes and Nominal Morphology

32 The Word-Class Inventory and the Noun/Verb Bipartition
33 Nominal Subclasses and Obligatorily-Possessed (Bound) Nouns
34 The Formal / Defective Noun Set (ruwe, hawe, siri, humi, hi, pe, kur)
35 Verbal Subclasses: A Valence-Based Word-Class Taxonomy
36 The 'No Adjective Class' Thesis: Property Concepts as Stative Verbs
37 Derivational Morphology on Nouns: Diminutive, Augmentative, and Size Modification
38 Noun–Noun Compounding: Headedness, Linking, and Semantics
39 Deverbal and Denominal Noun Derivation (Lexical Nominalizer Morphology)
40 Nominal Number: Transnumerality, -utar, and the Locus of Plurality
41 The Structure of the Noun Phrase

Part VII — Possession and the Affiliative System

42 The Alienable/Inalienable Split and Possessive Classification
43 Concept Form vs. Affiliative (Possessed) Form
44 Morphophonology of the Affiliative Suffix and Echo/Copy Vowels
45 Adnominal Possession: Double Marking and the Appositive Construction
46 External Possession and Possessor Raising
47 Kinship and Honorific Possession

Part VIII — Pronouns, Demonstratives, Postpositions, and Numerals

48 Personal, Reflexive, and Emphatic Pronouns
49 Demonstratives, Anaphora, and Definiteness
50 Interrogative, Indefinite, and Negative-Polarity Pro-forms
51 Relational and Spatial (Locative) Nouns and Their Possessed Forms
52 Postpositions, Local Case, Motion Events, Comitative, and Instrumental
53 The Vigesimal Numeral System
54 Numeral Classifiers, Ordinals, and Quantifier Syntax

Part IX — The Verb: Structure, Transitivity, and Verbal Number

55 The Verb Word and Its Position-Class Template
56 Transitivity, Valence Classes, and Ambitransitivity
57 Verbal Number: Suppletive Stems and the Pluractional -pa
58 Light Verbs, Pro-Verbs, and the Auxiliary-Verb Construction
59 Denominal and Deverbal Verb Derivation
60 The Adverbializer -no and Adverb Formation from Verbs

Part X — The Personal-Affix System and Alignment

61 Architecture of the Personal-Affix System: The Four Persons and the S/A/O Paradigms
62 First- and Second-Person Singular Affixes (ku=/en=, e=/e=)
63 First-Person Plural and the Clusivity Question (ci=/=as, un=)
64 The eci= Portmanteau (1A→2O) and Second-Person Plural Syncretism
65 Object Indexing: Monotransitive and Ditransitive Clauses
66 The Indefinite/Fourth Person: Forms, Reference, and Agent-Defocusing
67 Honorific and Logophoric Uses of the Fourth Person
68 The Personal-Affix Template: Position Classes and Affix Ordering
69 Person–Number Interactions and Plural Agreement
70 The Split-Intransitive (Active–Stative) Core
71 Tripartite, Nominative-Accusative, and the Central Alignment Debate

Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation

72 Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation: Overview
73 The Morphological Causative -re / -e / -te
74 The Transitivizer -ka and Lexical Valency Pairs
75 Causee Marking, Ditransitive and Double Causatives
76 The Permissive/Sociative Causative -yar
77 The Applicative System: Overview and the Preverb-vs-Applicative Debate
78 The e- Applicative
79 The ko- Applicative
80 The o- Applicative
81 Applicative Stacking, Ordering, and the Feeding of Relativization
82 The Antipassive / Detransitive i-
83 The Reflexive yay-
84 The Reflexive-Possessive si- and the yay-/si- Division
85 The Reciprocal u-
86 Middle, Anticausative, and the (Non-)Passive Question
87 Object (Patient) Noun Incorporation
88 Subject Incorporation and Possessor-Stranding
89 Oblique Incorporation and the Syntactic-vs-Lexicalist Debate

Part XII — The Simple Clause and Nonverbal Predication

90 Basic Constituent Order and Head-Final Syntax
91 Argument Realization: Affix Indexing and Free NP Order
92 Pro-Drop, (Non)configurationality, and the Pronominal-Argument Debate
93 Oblique and Adjunct Syntax; Verbless and Presentational Clauses
94 The Copula ne and Predicate-Nominal Clauses
95 Existential and Locational Clauses (an / oka)
96 Predicative Possession: kor, Existential Possession, and isam
97 Property-Concept (Adjectival) Predication without a Copula
98 TAM, Evidentiality, and Negation on Nonverbal Predicates

Part XIII — Nominalization, Relativization, and Complementation

99 The Nominalizers -p/-pe and -i/-hi (Participant, Event, Place, Fact)
100 Lexical-Head and Formal-Noun Nominalization (kur, uske, ruwe/hawe/siri/humi)
101 Relative Clauses: The Gap Strategy and the Accessibility Hierarchy
102 Headless, Internally-Headed, and Noun-Modifying Clause Analyses
103 Quotative Complementation and Reported Speech (sekor)
104 Nominalized Complements and Control/Raising
105 The kuni Complementizer and Purpose Complements

Part XIV — Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Modality

106 Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Modality: Overview
107 Tenselessness and the Time-Reference System
108 The Existential-Aspect System: kor an Progressive and wa an Resultative-Perfect
109 The Perfective/Anterior Particle a (a, a…a, aan)
110 The 'Appearance' Continuative: siran, siri…, and kane an
111 Phasal, Iterative, and Habitual Aspect
112 Imperative and Prohibitive (Directive Mood)
113 Hortative, Optative, and Cohortative
114 The Desiderative rusuy
115 Abilitative easkay / eaykap (Ability and Possibility)
116 Deontic Necessity and Obligation (kuni ne, kus ne)
117 Epistemic Modality, Dubitative, Intentive, and Irrealis

Part XV — Evidentiality and Mirativity

118 The Nominalization-plus-Copula Evidential Schema
119 ruwe ne — the Inferential / Visual-Trace Evidential
120 siri ne — the Direct-Perception / Situational Evidential
121 hawe ne — the Reportative / Hearsay Evidential
122 humi ne — the Non-Visual Sensory Evidential
123 Mirativity, Evidential Scope, and Grammaticalization to Sentence-Final Particles

Part XVI — Negation

124 Standard Clausal Negation with somo
125 Negative Existential and Possessive: isam
126 Negative Predicates of Ability and Cognition
127 Negative-Polarity Indefinites and the Scope of Negation
128 The Prohibitive Subsystem: iteki and Negative Directives

Part XVII — Clause Linkage and Adverbial Subordination

129 Clause Linkage in Ainu: Typology and Inventory
130 Sequential wa and Clause Chaining
131 The hine/akusu Contrast and Switch-Reference-Like Linkage
132 Simultaneous kor 'while' and Overlapping-Event Clauses
133 Conditional, Temporal, and Concessive Clauses
134 Causal and Purpose Clauses (kusu)
135 Manner and Degree Adverbial Clauses
136 Tail-Head Linkage and Narrative Clause Cohesion

Part XVIII — Information Structure, Sentence-Final Particles, and Minor Classes

137 Reference Tracking and Argument Continuity
138 Topic and Focus Marking: anak(ne), patek, and ka
139 Cleft, Pseudocleft, and Nominalization-Based Focus
140 Pragmatic Word-Order Permutation, Dislocation, and Argument Ellipsis
141 The Sentence-Final Particle System and Illocutionary Force
142 Interrogative Strategies, Question Particles, and Evidential Questions
143 Gendered Speech and Pragmatic Registers
144 Adverbs, Degree Words, and Comparison Strategies
145 Conjunctions and Discourse Connectives
146 Interjections, Response Words, Ideophones, and Sound Symbolism

Part XIX — Discourse and the Grammar of Oral Literature

147 The Oral-Literature Genre System and Its Grammatical Signatures
148 First-Person Narration, the Logophoric Fourth Person, and Reported Discourse
149 The Sakehe Refrain, Verse Meter, and the Structure of Sung Verse
150 Parallelism, Couplets, and Word-Pair Doublets
151 The Elevated/Poetic Register: Archaic Morphology and Formulaic Diction
152 Honorific, Ritual, and Taboo Registers
153 Narrative TAM and Evidential Patterning by Genre

Part XX — Diachrony, Reconstruction, and Dialectology

154 Proto-Ainu Reconstruction: Segments and Accent Classes
155 The Final-h Problem and Its Sakhalin Vowel-Length Reflex
156 Internal Reconstruction and Grammaticalization Pathways
157 Hokkaido Dialect Classification and Dialectometry
158 Hokkaido Dialect Microvariation: Phonology and Morphosyntax
159 Lexical Dialectology and the Dialect Atlas
160 Sakhalin and Kuril Ainu: The External Comparison

Part XXI — Language Contact and the Lexicon

161 Japanese Loanwords and Their Phonological Adaptation
162 Ainu Loanwords and Toponymy in Japanese
163 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
164 Macro-Comparison and Deep-Contact Controversies
165 Synopsis of Lexical-Semantic Fields

Part XXII — Glossed Texts

166 A Glossed Uwepeker (Prose Folktale)
167 Glossed Verse: A Yukar Heroic Epic and a Kamuy Yukar God-Song
168 A Glossed Inonno-itak (Ritual Prayer)
169 A Glossed Everyday-Conversation Text
170 A Glossed Sakhalin (Enciw) Text with Hokkaido Contrast

Part XXIII — Reference Apparatus (Back Matter)

171 Glossary of Grammatical Terms
172 Abbreviations and Glossing-Symbol Conventions
173 Consolidated References and Bibliography
174 Index of Subjects
175 Index of Grammatical Morphemes and Affixes
176 Index of Cited Examples, Source Texts, and Dialects

Back matter

Abbreviations and conventions
References

Chapter 78The e- Applicative

The e- applicative promoting content/theme, instrument, reason and 'about/concerning' obliques to object.

— chapter in preparation —

← 77. The Applicative System: Overview and the Preverb-vs-Applicative Debate 79. The ko- Applicative →

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